The Bolshevik Revolution was not just focused on the development of a socialist economy. It also promised to deliver long-awaited improvements to the lives of ordinary Russians, particularly women, peasants and industrial workers. These Soviet social reforms were idealistic, ambitious and extensive. Initiated by Bolshevik leaders like Alexandra Kollontai, they aimed to liberate women by removing traditional restrictions on marriage, divorce, abortion and contraception. Instead of gender inequity and exploitation, the state would support female workers by breaking down discriminatory barriers and providing welfare services, such as maternal services and childcare. Literacy and education were also important components of the new socialist society. If citizens were to be politically aware and truly equal, then being able to read and digest information was essential. The Soviets made some bold and ambitious attempts at reform in both areas, though their efforts were undermined by the disruption, deprivation and suffering caused by years of opposition and civil war.
“The ‘new Soviet woman’ is a familiar figure to most students of Soviet history. Born in the revolution and civil war, the Soviet heroine first appeared in periodicals as a nurse, as a political leader in the army, even as a combat soldier. She was modest, firm, dedicated, sympathetic, courageous, bold, hard-working, energetic and often young. She gave no thought to her personal welfare… believing that her sacrifice contributed to the building of a better world. Initially, she was drawn from life. In 1920, 66,000 women were serving in the Red Army, comprising two per cent of that force… Basing their portraits on these real women, Soviet publicists created the selfless revolutionary who was the first incarnation of the new Soviet woman.”
Abbott Gleason, historian
The champion of Soviet women’s policy was Alexandra Kollontai, who in late 1917 was elected to Sovnarkom as commissar for social reforms. Kollontai and other female Bolsheviks convened a ‘Soviet women’s congress’ in late 1918, which led to the 1919 formation of Zhenotdel, the world’s first government department exclusively concerned with the affairs of women. A series of decrees, passed between 1918 and 1920, gave Russian women political and legal equality with men. All adult women acquired the right to own property, to own or manage a business and the right to vote (a right not granted to American women until 1920 and British women eight years after that). The Bolshevik Family Law, passed in October 1918, codified changes to marriage, divorce and parenting. The church was stripped of controls over marriage, which became a civil contract rather than a religious ceremony. The process of divorce was simplified and made easier, particularly if women were abandoned, abused or neglected by their husbands. The rights of children and the obligations of parents were also enunciated.
Many in the Bolshevik movement were also determined to improve literacy and education, particularly amongst the peasantry. The first Bolshevik decree on education (November 1917) ordered the formation of a commissariat to work towards “universal literacy”. This was an idealistic goal but there was also a political imperative. The peasantry was obstinate, conservative and resistant to new ideas because it was unable to read. “The illiterate person stands outside politics,” Lenin said. “First it is necessary to teach him the alphabet. Without it there are only rumours, fairy tales and prejudices – but not politics.” Peasants who could read could access party propaganda, develop class consciousness and come to support the revolution and its leaders. In late 1918 the Soviet government attempted to speed up this process by ordering the mobilisation of literate party members who could go into remote areas to read aloud important decrees, news reports and political developments. The party also increased its output of visual propaganda, highlighting the importance of literacy and education.
Understandably, Soviet propaganda and histories claimed victory in this war on illiteracy. Lunarcharsky, the Soviet commissar for education, made the exaggerated claim that seven million Russians had been taught to read and write, many in just a matter of weeks. In reality, the gains in literacy were both modest and shallow. Millions of Russian peasants may have received a rudimentary introduction to reading, however, the program was not sustained or well resourced enough to bring about lasting changes or improvements. In sum the Soviet literacy campaign of 1919-21 was an example of trying to achieve too much too soon – and in many areas, amidst the disruption and suffering of Civil War. There were no significant advances in literacy until the relative peace and prosperity of the mid-1920s when the government revived its anti-literacy programs. By the end of the 1920s, Soviet literacy levels were approaching those of Western nations, with 68 per cent of men and 56 per cent of women now able to read and write (up from 40 per cent and 16 per cent respectively in 1897).
1. The Bolsheviks wanted to facilitate gender equality by removing the legal and social bonds that restricted women.
2. Led by Kollontai, the Soviets set up a women’s bureau, Zhenotdel, and introduced several progressive reforms.
3. Female workers were given equal pay and conditions, while mothers were supported with state services and benefits.
4. The Soviet regime also declared war on illiteracy, conscripting thousands of teachers and setting up ‘literacy schools’.
5. These programs made some advances but amid the disruption of civil war, they failed to have a significant impact.
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This page was written by Jennifer Llewellyn, John Rae and Steve Thompson. To reference this page, use the following citation:
J. Llewellyn et al, “Soviet social reforms” at Alpha History, https://alphahistory.com/russianrevolution/soviet-social-reforms/, 2014, accessed [date of last access].