British and European colonists were neither the first nor the only inhabitants of North America. Native Americans settled the continent some 20,000-30,000 years earlier, relocating from Asia and spreading down through Canada, North America and into Mexico. In the first decades of European settlement, relations between Native Americans and white settlers were comparatively calm, with political and trading alliances common. These relationships soured over time as white colonists grew in number and encroached into Native territories.
Who were Native Americans?
Historians and anthropologists are divided about how Native Americans came to settle the continent. The most widely accepted theory is that they entered North America between 20,000-30,000 years ago from Asia, moving through Siberia, crossing into what is now Alaska via a land bridge, then moving southward into Canada, North America and into Mexico.
It is impossible to make even close estimations of the Native population of North America at the time of British colonial settlement. Some historians have placed it as high as 6-7 million people, others suggest it was one-fifth that number. A more probable figure is a population of 2-3 million across the entire continent.
By the time of the first European arrivals, Native American populations of various sizes could be found all over North America – from modern-day California to Texas, through the Great Plains, south to Florida and north to the Great Lakes and Canada.
Tribal groups
Native Americans belonged to one of many tribal groups. There were more than 500 of these groups across North America and around 120 of these groups in the eastern third of the continent, the theatre where colonial wars and revolution unfolded.
Most tribal groups were sedentary or semi-nomadic and confined themselves to particular regions. Each had their own hierarchies, systems of organisation, spiritual beliefs and social and cultural practices.
As might be expected on a large continent where movement was limited, there was considerable language and cultural diversity. Nevertheless, Native American tribes were connected by some common threads, such as a strong emphasis on ancestry, clanship and community, as well as spiritual and totemic connections with their land, its flora and fauna.
Europeans in the 13 colonies lived near or alongside some significant Native American tribal groups. New Englanders were familiar with the Iroquois Confederacy, a group of six smaller tribes: the Oneida, Cayuga, Seneca, Mohawk and Tuscarora. The Delaware, Powhatan and Cherokee lived in the region of the Middle Colonies. Further west, towards the Great Lakes and Ohio River, lived tribes like the Ottawas, Miami, Shawnee and Illinois.
Early interactions with Europeans
European settlers in North America came into contact with Native inhabitants from the outset. At the time, and throughout the colonial and revolutionary period, they referred to Native Americans as ‘Indians’, a term emanating from Christopher Columbus’ mistaken belief that he had sighted the Indies. Today, the term ‘Indian’ is inappropriate and seldom used.
Native Americans looked upon the arrival of white Europeans with a mixture of curiosity and concern. Their responses could range from friendliness and willing coexistence to indifference or open hostility.
How relationships between Native Americans and colonists evolved depended on a range of factors, including the nature of first contact, the temperament and diplomacy of leaders on both sides, and the availability of land and food. Sometimes conflict was initiated simply by accident or error.
To illustrate this point, settlers at Jamestown, Virginia in the early 1600s hoped to form friendly relations with the local Powhatan tribe. Instead, a series of misunderstandings led to a destructive war. Further north, the Plymouth Pilgrims could not have survived their first years in America without the assistance of the Wampanoag people.
By the end of the 1600s, there were promising signs that Native Americans and European settlers might at least be able to coexist. Many Europeans, bushmen and frontier folk mainly, were able to forge relationships with Native tribes that included fur-trading and access to waterways for fishing. In turn, Europeans traded commodities with the Natives such as clothing, jewelry and tools.
French colonists and settlers, interested more in trade than establishing large settlements or land claims, were generally more successful in establishing friendly ties. By the mid 1750s France has forged alliances with several major tribes around the Great Lakes and Ohio region, including the Ottawa, Huron, Illinois, Sioux and Winnebago.
Tensions increase
As the population of the 13 British colonies increased, so did the need for more land. A general willingness to coexist and trade was overtaken by competition for territory and, inevitably, conflict.
These disagreements were generally caused by colonial settlers moving into land occupied by Native villages, grazing stock on Native farmland, or hunting and fishing on Native territory without seeking permission. Negotiations made with Native American leaders by one group of colonists were frequently ignored or unwittingly breached by others.
There were other complicating factors. Many Native American communities fell prey to European-introduced diseases to which they had no prior exposure or natural immunity, such as smallpox, measles and tuberculosis. Some Native American leaders also resented the activity of Christian missionaries among their people.
Involvement in colonial wars
Most Native American tribes were aligned with either the British or French. Because of this, these tribes were drawn into several colonial wars during the 17th and 18th centuries.
The first of the colonial wars was actually a series of smaller conflicts and skirmishes called the ‘Beaver Wars’. Beginning as early as 1609, they were fought between the Iroquois tribes, later aligned with the British, and around a dozen tribes allied to France. These wars were sparked by disputes over territory critical to the lucrative fur trade.
In 1675, a 14-month conflict between the New England colonies and a confederation of Native tribes ended with around 4,000 dead, one-quarter of them colonists. King Philip’s War, as it was then called, was sparked by the murder of a Native American who had learned English and converted to Christianity. Its broader context, however, was simmering tensions over colonial encroachment into Native lands.
In the century prior to revolution, Native tribes were involved in numerous other European conflicts fought on the American continent, including King William’s War (1688-97), Queen Anne’s War (1702-13) and King George’s War (1744-48). The French and Indian War, which expelled the French from North America east of the Mississippi, was the last of these conflicts.
1. Native Americans entered North America from Asia 20,000-30,000 years ago. Their numbers at the time of the European colonisation is unknown but it is likely to be between 2-3 million.
2. Native Americans lived in tribal and language groups within certain geographic regions, usually in static or semi-nomadic communities.
3. Early relationships with European settlers were generally peaceful, the latter relying on Native Americans for trade. This deteriorated over time as European numbers expanded.
4. European encroachment into tribal-held land was the most significant source of tension and conflict, though diseases and cultural tensions also played a part.
5. The vast majority of tribal groups were aligned with either the British or French. As a consequence, they were often drawn into colonial wars fought on the North American continent.
Citation information
Title: ‘Native Americans’
Authors: Jennifer Llewellyn, Steve Thompson
Publisher: Alpha History
URL: https://alphahistory.com/americanrevolution/native-americans/
Date published: July 14, 2019
Date updated: November 20, 2023
Date accessed: April 19, 2024
Copyright: The content on this page is © Alpha History. It may not be republished without our express permission. For more information on usage, please refer to our Terms of Use.